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   is stark. Chayos are the spiritual forces behind nature. They come
   together and praise G-d, lifting themselves to the level of the
   seraphim. Saraph is to burn. Fire, the least tangible of things, the
   universal representation of the spiritual. Man, by proper utilization
   of the artificial and natural, can elevate them until they too sing
   the glory of G-d no less than do the obviously spiritual.
   
   Holy, holy, holy is the G-d of Hosts. Holiness means being set aside
   for a purpose. Usually we speak of "kadosh le-"; that is, the item
   being santified to something. G-d Himself is as separate from
   everything else as possible, and works entirely toward His own Goal.
   These hosts of forces are what are embodied as angels "to His left and
   to His right".
   
   "G-d of Hosts" refers to the G-d who is Master of all the forces
   throughout existance. The Targum, a 1st century CE commentary and
   Aramaic translation renders the verse: Holy in heaven (the
   "there-ness") on high, the abode of his Presence Holy on earth, the
   work of His Might, Holy for ever, until the ends of time G-d of Hosts,
   the whole universe is filled with His dear Emanation.

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Subject: Question 3.47: Why is G-d referred to in the plural in the book of
         Genesis?

                                  Answer:
   
   The plural (for example, in Genesis 1:26) has been the source of
   wonder for most of the commenators. The following are some of the
   explanations:
     * G-d wanted to teach a personality trait to man. Therefore, even
       though He didn't require their input into the decision, G-d turned
       to the angels and asked them if they would participate. This act
       of respect thereby became a fundamental feature of human
       composition.
     * There are more than one Hebrew nouns that end in "-im" that are
       not plural. For example, Mayim (water) and Chayyim (Life). The
       same is true of Elohim. Sometimes the "-im" ending is used to
       connote power, not plurality. Whatever the grammatical origin of
       this word, it is used in the Hebrew Bible as a *singular* noun.
     * Some scholars view the use of Elohim as a plural that expresses an
       abstract idea (e.g., zekunim, "old age"; neurim, "time of youth"),
       so that Elohim would really mean "the Divinity."
     * It might come from historical usage in the language at the time.
       It may be derived from Canaanite usage, and the early Israelites
       would have taken over elohim as a singular noun just as they made
       their own the rest of the Canaanite language. In the
       Tell-el-Amarna Letters Pharaoh is often addressed as "my gods
       [ilaniya] the sun-god." In the ancient Near East of the second
       half of the second millennium B.C.E. there was a certain trend
       toward quasi-monotheism, and any god could be given the attributes
       of any other god, so that an individual god could be addressed as
       elohai, "my gods" or adonai, "my lords." The early Israelites felt
       no inconsistency in referring to their sole God in these terms.

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Subject: Question 3.48: What is the Mekhilta on Deuteronomy?

                                  Answer:
   
   Medrashim are compilations of tannaitic material organized as a
   commentary on the Torah. There are two sorts: medrashei halakhah
   (halachic medrashim) record tannaitic discussion of the halachos
   raised by the verses, and medrashei aggadah are the discussions of
   everything else: theology, philosophy, ethics, the human condition,
   etc. (Medrashei aggadah are usually composed using stories and
   metaphore, and gave the word "medrash" a second meaning of stories
   that embellish those in the text or are about figures known to the
   authors.)
   
   There is also a Mekhilta deRabbi Shim'on bar Yochai, but that is
   rarely referred to, and therefore people would call it by the full
   name. It's not "the Mekhilta". This other Mekhilta is sometimes called
   Mekhilta deVei Rabbi Aqiva (the Mekhilta of the house/school of Rabbi
   Aqiva) as the identification of the school of the author is more sure
   than the who in that school actually wrote it.
   
   This split is quite relevent as Rabbi Yishma'el and Rabbi Aqiva had
   very different theories about how the rules of derashah, of
   associating halakhos with the text by hermeneutic rules, work.
   Therefore their medrashei halakhah reflect such differences.
   
   The two series of medrashei halakhah are:
     * R' Aqiva's school:
          + Mekhilta deRabbi Shim'on bar Yochai (on Exodus)
          + Sifra (on Leviticus: a/k/a Sifra deVei Rav, Toras Kohanim
          + Sifrei Zuta ("the small sifrei" on Numbers)
          + Sifrei (Deuteronomy)
     * R' Yishma'el's school:
          + Mekhilta (a/k/a Mekhilta deRabbi Yeshima'el, on Exodus)
          + Sifrei (Numbers)
          + Mekhilta Devarim (the Mekhilta on Deuteronomy)
       
   The traditional publication of the medrashei halakhah includes four
   books, mixing the two schools: Mekhilta, Sifra, Sifrei (on Numbers)
   and Sifrei (on Deuteronomy). In fact, the two Sifrei's often get
   published as a single volume, despite the differnce in style that
   makes their different origin obvious.
   
   A more complete publication would have all seven books, traditionally
   published in the order: Mekhilta, Mehilta deR' Shim'on bar Yochai,
   Sifra, Sifrei (Numbers), Sifrei Zuta, Sifrei (Deut), Mekhilta Devarim.
   
   The word "mekhilta" is Aramaic, and means "measure" or "rule". The
   words "sifra" and "sifrei" are conjugations of the root /spr/, meaning
   "book" or "writing a book". Sometimes the word "sifrei" is used to
   refer to all 4 books.
   
   After Rabbi Yehudah haNasi compiled the Mishnah, organizing halakhah
   by topic rather than verse, the notion of composing medrashei halakhah
   fell out of use.

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Subject: Question 4.1: What is "Halacha?" How is it determined?

                                  Answer:
   
   Halacha means "Way" or "Path". Halacha is the application of the Law
   (Torah) to everyday living.
   
   The traditional viewpoint is that Halacha should be decided by those
   who are most knowledgable in all aspects of Jewish law. Since the
   Halacha of each generation is decided by its greatest Torah scholars,
   and the Torah doesn't change, there is usually little change in the
   Halacha from one generation to the next. The development of Halacha is
   most evident when new situations arise for which rulings must be made,
   such as the destruction of the Temple, the development of electricity,
   and the increasing complexity of modern food processing technology.
   
   Since the non-traditional viewpoint is that the the Torah itself was
   written by people, both the interpretation of the Law and its
   application are re-evaluated in each generation, using the
   interpretations of the past to serve primarily as non-binding guidance
   in how to continue this process.
   
   Both viewpoints encourages all Jews to study halacha, and apply it to
   their daily lives in order that they be brought closer to G-d.

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Subject: Question 4.2: Traditionally, what are the levels of halacha?

                                  Answer:
    1. Minhag. Custom. Custom, although not really part of Halachah, can
       change. Minhag is any act that the masses, on their own, accept.
       Any minhag that is against actual Halachah, is called a minhag
       ta'os, a mistaken minhag. Any that is based on a misunderstanding
       is a minhag shtus, a foolish custom. These two should not be
       followed. Any nearly universal minhag is called a Minhag Yisroel,
       and has most of the stringencies of law. (Yarmulka, and Ma'ariv
       services are two examples of a Minhag Yisroel.)
    2. Din dirabanan. A rabbinic law. These are set up by the rabbinate,
       instead of the masses, in order to preserve the spirit of the law.
       For example, Purim and Chanukah. There are 7 new commandments that
       are entirely rabbinic, bringing the famous total of 613 mitzvot up
       to 620.
    3. Gezeira dirabanan. A rabbinic "fence". These are enacted to
       prevent a common cause for breaking the act of the law. For
       example, one may not place food directly on a fire before Shabbat
       in order to keep it heated during Shabbat. This is a fence around
       the law against cooking on Shabbat. To prevent the gezeira from
       being violated, a metal cover, called a blech in Yiddish, is
       placed on the stove top before Shabbat with the flame (turned to a
       low setting) under one section and the pot with food placed on the
       blech. This blech serves as a fence, allowing heating of the food
       without any danger of violating the law. Note that a "gezeira
       dirabanan" becomes binding only if it is accepted by the
       community.
    4. P'sak. A rabbinic ruling. This ruling addresses a the questionable
       area of some law or custom. A p'sak can only be over ruled by
       another body which is both larger in number, and greater in
       "chochmah". (The ability to know how to use the facts. Not more
       knowledgeable book-wise, but more steeped in the Torah
       weltanschauung.)
       
   The distinction between the second and third categories is subtle. In
   order to be a Din (or Issur, or Melachah) Dirabanan, the prohibited
   action must be similar in purpose to the permitted one. A gezeira does
   not even require an action. In the example I gave, it was inaction,
   leaving the pot where it is, that is prohibited. The category includes
   things that are similar in means to the prohibited act, and will
   therefore cause confusion about what is and what isn't okay; and
   things which will allow people to be caught up in habit, and forget
   about the prohibition. Only a gezeira may defy an actual Divine law
   (although a p'sak will often define one), and even so only under
   specific circumstances. All of the following must be satisfied:
     * The law being protected is more stringent than the one being
       violated. This determination isn't easy.
     * The law is being violated only through inaction. No one is being
       told to actively violate G-d's commandment.
     * The law being violated will still be applicable in most
       situations. It still must exist in some form.
       
   On the other hand, a gezeira is less powerful than a normal rabbinic
   law in that they can not be compounded. One may not make a "fence" for
   the express purpose of protecting another "fence". A law is considered
   accepted if it becomes common practice. Any din or gezeira which does
   not get accepted by the masses in the short run, does not become
   binding in the long run. Similarly, there are rules for p'sak, but
   they are violated if the masses choose to follows some other rabbinic
   body's p'sak. Notice, however, that this is only in the short run.
   Once a law is accepted, it may only be overruled by p'sak. It cannot
   just fade into non-practice.

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Subject: Question 4.3: Traditionally, what are the different rabbinic eras?

                                  Answer:
   
   For traditional Torah scholars, the end of each era is marked by a
   book that gets accepted by the masses as authoritative. This seals the
   acts of that era as a whole as accepted, authoritative p'sak.
   Therefore, any ruling by those who live after this era must be
   supported by an opinion of that era.
   
   The first such book (and the first written book of the Oral law) is
   the [5]Mishna. There are other compilations of the Tanaitic material,
   the [6]Braisos (Baraitot), the [7]Tosefta, and [8]Midrashai Halakha
   (Mekhilta, Sifra, and Sifre), but it is the Mishna that marks the end
   of the Tanaitic era (70-200 CE). It was the Mishna that was accepted
   by the people.
   
   The second is the [9]Babylonian Talmud. The [10]Jerusalem Talmud is
   less authoritative because it was developed for a shorter time than
   the Babylonian Talmud. The Talmud marks the end of the Amoraic era
   (220-500 CE).
   
   The next era was the period of the Sabora'im (500-650CE). At this
   time, the Jewish sages in Persia who were the rabbinic leaders of
   their time. They contributed much to the finishing of [11]Talmud
   Bavli; Jews in this area continued to live in a relatively stable
   environment. In contrast, Jews at this time in Israel were living
   under the oppressive rule of the Byzantines.
   
   There is a Ga'onic era in Jewish history (650-1250CE), but not in
   Jewish law, since there is no book that was accepted as the end of
   that era. At this time, Jews were living in Southern Europe and Asia
   Minor under the often intolerant rule of Christian Kings and clerics.
   Most Jews lived in the Muslim Arab realm (Israel, North Africa,
   Babylonia). Despite periods of persecution, Jewish communal and
   cultural life flowered in this period. The universally recognized
   centers of Jewish life were in Sura and Pumbeditha (Babylonia); The
   heads of these law schools were the Geonim, who were consulted on
   matters of law by Jews throughout the world.
   
   The next such book(s) is the [12]Shulchan Aruch (by R' Caro), the
   authoritative Sephardic resource, and the [13]Mappah (Ramah), which
   has the Ashkenazic rulings when different (Note that both are in the
   same book; see the general reading list). This delineated the period
   of the Rishonim (The First Ones) (1250-1550CE). A Rishon may argue
   with another Rishon, or with a Ga'on (since there is no Halachic
   concept of the Gaonic era), but can only argue with an Amora if he has
   another Amora in his support. He cannot use a Tana that was rejected
   by the Amora'im as support, since that would be overruling a p'sak of
   someone greater in chochmah.
   
   Most Jews in the period of the Rishonim lived in the Mediterranean
   basin or in Western Europe under feudal systems. With the decline of
   both the Muslim and Jewish centers of power in Iraq, there was no
   single place in the world which was a recognized center for deciding
   matters of Jewish law and practice. Consequently, the rabbis
   recognized the need for writing commentaries on the Torah and Talmud
   and for writing law codes that would allow Jews anywhere in the world
   to be able to continue living in the Jewish tradition.
   
   Anyone after the Shulchan Aruch is called an Acharon (The Last Ones)
   (1550CE to present). An Acharon can only disagree with a Rishon when
   he is taking the position of another Rishon. There are strict rules
   for change.
   
   Liberal Jews tend to justify halachic change by ascribing greater
   authority to present generations (or even to individuals) than to past
   generations of sages.

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Subject: Question 4.4: How can differing halachic rulings all be considered
         valid?

                                  Answer:
   
   When both parties agree upon the underlying requirements. For example,
   rabbis would agree that one may only eat a kosher animal that was
   slaughtered properly. But they might differ as to the particulars of
   what constitutes proper kosher slaughtering.

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Subject: Question 4.5: How does the Conservative movement deal with Halachic
         questions?

                                  Answer:
   
   Conservative Jews view the laws and customs from the various law
   codes, such as the Mishneh Torah and Shulkhan Arukh, as the basis for
   binding Jewish law, and allow for law to be modified by today's
   halakhic authorities. While accepting the dictates of the movement's
   Rabbinical Assembly as normative, Conservative Jews also accept that
   rulings of Orthodox and Traditional (i.e., Union for Traditional
   Judaism) rabbis are legitimate halakhic positions.
   
   Jewish law and custom, as followed traditionally, is preserved by
   Conservative Judaism as much as possible. Changes are not made for
   their own sake, but rather to deal with an urgent, acute problem, with
   a preference for lenient ruling over strict ones. This approach is
   based Talmud Bavli, which states "The strength of a lenient ruling is
   greater" [Talmud Bavli, Berakhot, 60a]
   
   Before giving a halakhic ruling, Conservative Judaism studies the
   subject in a historic and scientific fashion to determine if the law
   came from the Torah, the Talmudic sages, the early rabbis (Geonim and
   Rishonim) or the later rabbis (Acharonim). This is because there is
   generally more readiness to change a new law or something which is
   only a custom.
   
   Note that Conservative Judaism does not view the Shulkhan Arukh as the
   ultimate authority in matters of Jewish law and custom.
   
   The central halakhic authority in Conservative Judaism is the
   Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (CJLS), which was founded by the
   Rabbinical Assembly (RA) in the 1920s. It is composed of 25 rabbis,
   who are voting members, and five laypeople, who do not vote, but
   participate fully in deliberations. When any six members vote in favor
   of a position, that position becomes a validated position of the
   committee, thus there is the possibility that any issue can generate
   from one to four official positions.
   
   Unanimous decisions become the official position of the Conservative
   movement. When more than one position is validated, each
   congregational rabbi functions as the mara de-atra (local rabbinic
   authority), adopting for their congregation the position he or she
   considers most compelling. In the overwhelming majority of cases,
   Conservative rabbis choose among the law committee's validated
   positions. On rare occasions, an individual rabbi may ignore the
   committee and act in accordance with his or her own convictions
   regarding what is halakhically correct.
   
   CJLS decisions are not absolutely enforceable on rabbis, except
   regarding 'standards'. A standard requires an 80% vote of the full
   membership of the CJLS and a majority vote by the plenum of the
   Rabbinical Assembly. Willful violations have led to resignations or
   expulsions from membership of the Rabbinical Assembly (RA). At
   present, there are four standards:
    1. A complete prohibition on rabbis and cantors to officiate in any
       way at intermarriages.
    2. A complete prohibition against officiating at the remarriage of a
       Jew whose previous marriage has not been halakhically terminated,
       whether by a halakhic divorce [get], hafka'at Kiddushin [annulment
       of the marriage], or death.
    3. A complete prohibition against taking any action that would
       intimate that native Jewishness can be confirmed in any way but
       matrilineal descent.
    4. A complete prohibition against supervising a conversion to Judaism
       that does not include circumcision for males, and immersion in a
       mikveh for both males and females.
       
   The Rabbinical Assembly of Israel (Israeli arm of the RA) has its own
   decision making body, the Va'ad Halacha. Responsa by both the CJLS and
   the Va'ad Halacha are equally valid. Due to different social
   circumstances, the CJLS and the Va'ad do not always come up with the
   same teshuva. In such a case a rabbi is free to decide which responsa
   to use. In addition, the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism
   (USCJ) maintains its own list of binding standards for all synagogues
   associated with the movement. Among other things, these standards
   mandate observance of the Sabbath and the laws of Kashrut.

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Subject: Question 4.6: What is the difference between two Orthodox rabbis who
         disagree and an Orthodox and a Reform who disagree?

                                  Answer:
   
   How could two people have two different, logically developed opinions
   on any issue? :-)
   
   In answering this, there are two important points to keep in mind:
     * Most decisions are not simply bilateral yes/no decisions
     * Valid interpretations according to traditional hermeneutics that
       differ in particulars of a particular place/time can survive
       concurrently (cf. any modern legal system)
       
   The Orthodox rabbis would both say that their halachic rulings are in
   line with the tradition of Torah learning, all the way from Sinai, and
   that their difference is in details. The Reform rabbi, however, might
   derive a ruling from other sources of morality, such as secular
   ethical notions of equality.
   
   Reform Rabbi Walter Jacob writes, in Contemporary American Reform
   Responsa that "Our path in America is clear and our halakhic stance is
   akin to the pluralism of the past from the days of Hillel and Shammai
   in the first century through the entire rabbinic period to our own
   time." Orthodox rabbis would counter that the schools of Hillel and
   Shammai differed on the particulars of halacha (with the understanding
   being that the multiplicity of debate was a byproduct of a disucssion
   of students, not disciples, resulting in flaws of transmission). Thus,
   the Orthodox scholars believe there was no disagreement over first
   principles, while Orthodox and Reform differ significantly on major
   principles, such as Torah being from G-d, and the authority of
   individuals to decide halacha for themselves.

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Subject: Question 4.7: Who is RAMBAM that is mentioned & what are his 13
         principles

                                  Answer:
   
   Moses Maimonides (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, usually referred to in
   Hebrew by the acronym "Rambam") was one of the towering figures in
   medieval intellectual and religious life. In addition to his law code,
   he excelled in the fields of philosophy, science, medicine, exegesis
   and communal leadership. Though born in Spain, in his youth his family
   fled religious persecution, settling in Egypt. Maimonides' literary
   output includes: a work on philosophical logic; an Arabic commentary
   to the Mishnah; an enumeration of the 613 precepts of the Torah; the
   Mishneh Torah law code; the Arabic philosophical treatise The Guide of
   the Perplexed; and many letters and responsa addressed to various
   Jewish communities.
   
   One of the Rambam's legacies is what has been come to be called the
   "13 principles of faith". These are not related to any particular
   observance; rather, they are intended to map out the borders between
   Judaism and other belief systems (such as Christianity and Islam). Why
   is this necessary? There are certain laws that apply to our
   relationships with "apikursim" (from the Greek "epicurean"), minim
   (heretics), kofrim (deniers) and mumarim (non observant). The first
   three are defined by belief, so Maimonides wanted to outline the
   borders between acceptable belief systems, and people in these three
   classes. According to Maimonides (see Laws of Repentence 3:6-9), these
   people, while members of the Jewish nation, aren't believers in
   Judaism. This has halachic import, such as whether they can be counted
   toward a quorum (minyan) for prayer; whether one can share their wine,
   etc. It also has metaphysical import: believers in Judaism (including
   non-Jews who observe the Noachide covenant) are guaranteed a world to
   come; these people are not. A min (a term also used in the Talmud to
   refer to early Christians) is one who diverges on the basics of
   theology: polytheists, deists, atheists, those who believe one should
   worship G-d via demigods (middle-men), and those who say that god has
   a body. [According to the Rambam's Guide, the latter is a form of
   polytheism. He sees it as just a verbal difference between talking
   about one god who has parts and one pantheon of multiple gods.] The
   word apikoreis is the Aramaic for Epicurean, as in "eat, drink and be
   merry for tomorrow we may die" and "nothing exists but atoms and the
   void". Looking at Maimonides' code, he defines "apikoreis" as one who
   holds any of the following:
    1. There is no prophecy
    2. Moses' didn't have a special kind of prophecy (since it was Moses
       who actually conveyed the rules of behavior, both ours and
       Noachide); or
    3. G-d doesn't know what people do.
       
   Note that these are related to whether G-d's existance imposes
   requirements on human behavior (which is why the word relates to
   Epicurus). Kofrim are those who deny the divine origin of even a
   single verse of the Torah, or deny the origin of the Oral Torah, and
   those who say that some part of the Torah was later superceded. So, in
   summary: the wrong view of G-d makes one a min, the wrong view of how
   G-d relates to human behavior makes one an apikoreis, and disbelieving
   part of the Torah makes one a kofeir. Maimonides took these rules and
   to compose his 13 articles. So, the point of the articles is to give a
   rational basis to believing that Jewish observance was actually given
   to us by G-d.
   
   The RAMBAM's 13 principles, as expressed in the Artscroll Siddur
   (pages 178-180) are as follows:
    1. G-d's Existence
    2. G-d is a complete and total unity
    3. G-d is not physical
    4. G-d is eternal and the First Source
    5. Prayers should be directed to G-d
    6. G-d communicates with man
    7. Moses' prophecy is unique
    8. The entire Torah is G-d-given
    9. The Torah is unchangeable
   10. G-d knows man's thoughts and deeds
   11. Reward and punishment
   12. The Messiah will come
   13. The dead will live again
       
   Some other places to find a more detailed statement of the principles
   are as follows:
     * The original, from Maimonides' commentary on the Mishnah:
       [5]http://members.aol.com/LazerA/13yesodos.html
     * The Ani Ma'amin liturgical version (shorter):
       [6]http://www.panix.com/~jjbaker/AniMaamin.html
     * The Yigdal liturgical poem (even shorter, and might compromise
       precision in the langauge for poetry):
       [7]http://www.panix.com/~jjbaker/Yigdal.html
       
   It would take volumes to explain what these mean, but a good
   "catechism" of Jewish beliefs is the Handbook of Jewish Thought by R'
   Aryeh Kaplan.
   
   See Also: [8]Section 3.36. Torah: What is the Mishneh Torah (Yad
   Ha-Hazaqah , Sefer Mehoqeq)?

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Subject: Question 4.8: Who was Rashi?

                                  Answer:
   
   Rabbi Shlomo Ben Yitzchak, 1040-1105. Usually called Rabbi Shlomo
   Yitzchaki. He was the author of a massive commentary on almost all of
   Tanach and most of the Talmud. His fame rests not only on the content
   of his explanations but on their style that remains clear and concise
   throughout. His commentary has become the most comprehensive and
   popular in existence and provided the basis for most subsequent
   studies of the Tanach, Talmud, and Jewish Law.
   
   His commentary on Chumash, first printed in 1465, was the first dated
   Hebrew book, and appears in a special script now know as "Rashi
   script". His commentaries are considered the standard work without
   which it is impossible to understand the Talmud.
   
   See also: [5]Section 3.18. Torah: What is Rashi's commentary on the
   Talmud?

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Subject: Question 4.9: Who was the Ramban?

                                  Answer:
   
   Rabbi Moshe Ben Nachmon, Nachmanides, 1194-1270. He wrote a commentary
   on Torah and halachah, and more than 50 other lucid and logical works.
   He participated in a disputation (theological argument with the
   Catholic Church) in Barcelona in 1263; although he won, he was forced
   to flee Spain, and as a result all future disputations forbade the
   Jewish participants to answer frankly. At age 72 he settled in
   Jerusalem, reorganized the Jewish community, and moved to Acco to
   become head its Jewish community.

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Subject: Question 4.10: What is Kabbalah and how can I learn about it?

                                  Answer:
   
   It's important to differentiate between the popular notion of Kabbalah
   and the concept within traditional Judaism. In the popular culture,
   Kabbalah is perceived as a form of magic or the occult, studied for
   selfish personal gain. This misinformed idea resulted from those who
   adapted Jewish ideas out of the context of Jewish belief and practice,
   warping it away from its foundations to their own purposes. These
   include medieval Christian mystics, neo-pagan groups, and contemporary
   "new age" movements.
   
   Within Judaism, though, Kabbalah is the part of Torah that addresses
   the process of creation ("Ma'aseh B'raisheet") and the relationship
   that G-d maintains with creation ("Ma'aseh Merkavah"). As such it is
   the Torah's inner aspect. Some traditions say that some of the key
   texts go as far back as the Patriarch Abraham.
   
   Parts of Kabbalah, such as the [5]Zohar and Rabbi Moshe Cordovero's
   "Pardes Rimonim," are accessible, but difficult to understand without
   a firm grounding in the more basic Jewish sources and an informed
   teacher. Other parts remain hidden and unavailable to the public.
   Parts have been committed to print, but others remain as closely held,
   orally transmitted tradition.
   
   The most accessible, traditionally accurate books for English language
   study of the topic are Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan's "Innerspace, Introduction
   to Kabbalah, Meditation and Prophecy" (Moznaim Publishing, Brooklyn
   NY), "Meditation and Kabbalah," "Kabbalah and the Bible" (Samuel
   Weiser and Sons, New York), and "Jewish Meditation" (Schocken, New
   York). Lubavitcher Chassidim recommend directed study of the Tanya.
   (Kehot Publications, New York)
   
   Additional information may be found in the [6]Mysticism Reading List.

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Subject: Question 4.11: Who is allowed to study Kabbalah?

                                  Answer:
   
   The Kabbalah deals with sensitive topics and the knowledge it offers
   has been warped, even within the Jewish community. This resulted in
   severe disruption of the Eastern European Jewish community (for
   example, the false messiah Shabbtai Tzvi and the Frankists). As a
   result, the non-Chassidic sages placed a ban on the study of three
   basic texts until the age of 30, until the age of 40 for general
   study, and in all cases until one has studied the more basic Jewish
   sources (Tanakh, Talmud, Halacha) in depth. However, in Sephardic and
   Chassidic communities, some basic texts are studied even by young
   folks.

------------------------------------------------------------

Subject: Question 4.12: Who was Rabbeinu Tam?

                                  Answer:
   
   Rabbeinu Tam (12th cent) is one of the better known Tosafists, and a
   grandson of Rashi. His real name was Rabbi Yaakov ben Meir. Yaakov
   (Jacob) was called in Genesis an "ish tam", a whole/perfect man.
   
   In halachic rulings, the Tosafists usually defended Ashkenazi norms,
   trying to find its basis in the Talmudic texts. Rabbeinu Tam was an
   exception. Two rulings of his are better known, they serve as an

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