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   ancient. In the holy temple that was in Jerusalem, they seperated men
   from women during prayer and services to reduce frivolity.
   
    Synagogue Attire
    
   People going to a synagogue dress in a manner as to show respect for
   G-d, that is nicely, formally, and modestly. Men should wear a kippah
   if that is the custom of that congregation; such congregatins often
   make them available by the door. Men also often wear Tallit; these are
   often also available by the door (these should not be worn by
   non-Jews). In progressive congregations, women also wear kippahs and
   tallit. In some synagogues, married women also wear a head covering,
   such as a piece of lace. If you are in an traditional synagogue, be
   careful to sit in the right section: men and women are seated
   separately.

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Subject: Question 9.9: How is a synagogue operated?

                                  Answer:
   
   Synagogues are operated in a manner similar to most non-profit
   organizations. They are generally run by a board of directors composed
   of lay people, which manages and maintains the synagogue and its
   activities, and hires religious staff for the community. There is
   typically a congregation president, and other common positions include
   secretary and treasurer. There are positions that deal with religious
   practices, social action, membership, and other functions provided by
   the organization.
   
   Typcially, the religious staff is not a member of the board (although
   they could be); they are typically employees of the congregation. In
   many congregations, they earn a salary. The religious staff typically
   includes a rabbi and an cantor. The latter position is sometimes
   called a music director. The educational leadership is often part of
   the relgious staff.
   
   It is worth noting that a synagogue can exist without a rabbi:
   religious services can be, and often are, conducted by lay people in
   whole or in part. It is not unusual for a synagogue to be without a
   rabbi, at least temporarily. However, the rabbi is a valuable member
   of the community, providing leadership, guidance and education.
   
   Synagogues do not pass around collection plates during services.
   Traditionally, this is because Jews are not permitted to carry money
   on Holy days and Shabbat. Instead, synagogues are financed through
   membership dues paid annually, through voluntary donations, through
   community fundraisers, and through the purchase of reserved seats for
   services on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur (the holidays when the
   synagogue is most crowded). There are two primary approaches to
   synagogue dues. Some congregations set a fixed fee based on membership
   categories. Other congregations base dues on a small percentage (often
   2%) of one's income. There are two important factors to note about
   synagogue dues: (1) they are often less, overall, than the donations
   done in some churches that have a policy of tithing 10%; (2) they are
   often negotiable through the membership committee if one is unable to
   pay, and such negotiation are kept private. People are not turned away
   because of ability to pray.
   
   It is important to note, however, that you do not have to be a member
   of a synagogue in order to worship there. If you plan to worship at a
   synagogue regularly and you have the financial means, you should
   certainly pay your dues to cover your fair share of the synagogue's
   costs, but no synagogue checks membership cards at the door (except
   possibly on the High Holidays mentioned above, if there aren't enough
   seats for everyone).
   
   Synagogues are, for the most part, independent community
   organizations. Individual synagogues do not answer to any central
   authority. The various movements of Judaism do have organizations for
   their synagogues, but these organizations have no real power over each
   synagogue (the synagogue can always go independent).

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Subject: Question 9.10: What functions does a synagogue serve?

                                  Answer:
   
   Synagogues typically serve in three different capacities:
    1. Beit tefilah, a house of prayer. Synagogues serve as a place where
       Jews come together for community prayer services. Jews can satisfy
       the obligations of daily prayer by praying anywhere; however,
       there are certain prayers that can only be said in the presence of
       a minyan (a quorum of 10 adult men), and tradition teaches that
       there is more merit to praying with a group than there is in
       praying alone. The sanctity of the synagogue for this purpose is
       second only to The Temple. In fact, in rabbinical literature, the
       synagogue is sometimes referred to as the "little Temple."
    2. Beit midrash, a house of study. Jewish education does not end at
       the age of bar mitzvah; the study of Judaism and sacred texts is a
       life-long task. Synagogues offer education to both children and
       adults and often have a well-stocked library.
    3. Beit knesset, a house of assembly. Synagogues often have a social
       hall for religious and non-religious activities. The synagogue
       provides a place where matters of importance to the community can
       be discussed, and social action concerns can be aired. Synagogues
       often provide social welfare functions, collecting and dispensing
       money and other items for the aid of the poor and needy within the
       community.

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Subject: Question 9.11: What is the name of the Jewish God?

                                  Answer:
   
   In Judaism God has several names. The most important name of God is
   the Tetragrammaton, YHVH. Because Jews considered it sinful to
   pronounce, the correct pronunciation of this name was forgotten -- the
   original Hebrew texts only included consonants. Some conjecture that
   it was pronounced "Yahweh". The Hebrew letters are named
   Yod-Heh-Vav-Heh.
   
   Jews also call God Adonai, or "my Lord." Since pronouncing YHVH is
   considered sinful, Jews would use Adonai instead in prayers. When the
   Masoretes added vowel pointings to the text of the Tanach in the first
   century CE they gave the word YHVH the vowels of Adonai, to remind the
   reader to say Adonai instead. Many Christian bible translators
   misinterpreted this to mean that God's name was Jehovah, which is the
   result of combining Adonai's vowels with YHVH's consonants, written
   using Latin orthography in which "J" is prnounced as the English "Y."
   
   All denominations of Judaism teach that the four letter name of God,
   YHVH, is forbidden to be uttered except by the High Priest, in the
   Temple. Since the Temple in Jerusalem is no longer extant, this name
   is never pronounced in religious rituals by Jews. Orthodox Jews never
   pronounce it for any reason. Some non-Orthodox Jews are willing to
   pronounce it, but for educational purposes only, and never in causal
   conversation or in prayer. Instead of pronouncing YHVH during prayer,
   Jews say "Adonai".
   
   Jews often build "fences" around the basic laws, so that there is no
   chance that the main law will ever be broken. As such, it is common
   Jewish practice among to restrict the use of the word "Adonai" to
   prayer only. In conversation many Jewish people will call God
   "HaShem", which is Hebrew for "the Name". Many Jews also write "G-d"
   instead of "God". While these substitutions are by no means required
   by Judaism (only the Hebrew name, not the English, is holy), they do
   it to remind themselves of the holiness attached to God's name.
   
   English translations of the Bible generally render YHVH as "LORD" (in
   small capitals), and Adonai as "Lord" (in normal case). Scholars
   disagree as to the meaning of the name Yahweh - many believe it means
   something like "I am the One Who Is," or "I am that I am, and I cause
   what is."
   
   Other Jewish names of God include:
     * Adonai Emet (Truth)
     * Tzur Yisrael (The Rock of Israel)
     * Elohei Avraham, Yitzchak v'Ya'acov (God of Abraham, God of Isaac,
       God of Jacob)
     * Ehiyeh sh'Ehiyeh (I Am That I Am)
     * Avinu Malkeinu (Our Father, our King)
     * Ro'eh Yisrael (Shepherd of Israel)
     * Ha-Kadosh, Baruch Hu (The Holy One, Praised be He)
     * Melech ha-M'lachim (The King of Kings)
     * Makom (literally, the Place; means "The Omnipresent")
     * Magen Avraham (Shield of Abraham)
       
   There is more information in answer [5]12.24

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Subject: Question 9.12: What is the reason for a "minyon" (a quorum of 10 men
         requried for certain prayers)?

                                  Answer:
   
   Note that the requirements for a minyan are not biblical in origin.
   The reasons are rabbinic. The following are some sources:
     * M Megillah 4:3 and BT. Meg. 23b list the required occasions for a
       minyan: the sheva berakhot at a wedding; the chazarat ha-shatz of
       the Amidah; the reading of Torah from the scroll and of Haftarah;
       the kedusha (derived from Lev. 22:32, ve-nikdashti betokh benei
       yisra'el, matching the word tokh with Num. 16:21, mitokh ha-edah,
       where the context makes it clear that sanctification requires a
       public.
     * The number 10 is derived from Num. 14:27, where the ten spies
       opposing the invasion were called an edah ra'ah. There were also
       other derivations, one of them being the "ten righteous people"
       that were lacking in Sodom.
     * Soferim 10:7 adds Kaddish and barekhu to the rubrics requiring a
       minyan, though here, the plain text would suggest that the minyan
       could be seven (or even six) worshippers, after the number of
       words in Judges 5:2. But later interpretation favored the reading
       of this prescription as signifying that the numbers six or seven
       refer to persons who, within a regular minyan of ten men, have not
       heard the Kaddish or barekhu. If we read the Soferim passage
       plainly it appears that the author(s), writing in Palestine, meant
       to deal with situations when it was difficult to gather a minyan.
     * The Talmud (YT Meg. 4:4 and Ber. 7:3 ) provides that if a minyan
       was present to start with, but some people had left afterwards,
       the service could conclude as if they were still present, provided
       that the majority remain (so Rambam, Yad, Tefillah 8:8, Sh. A. O.
       H, 55:4; and the Hafetz Chayim, Mishnah Berurah, # 24).
       
   Note: If one cannot scrape up 10 minyan-qualified individuals
   (traditional Judaism only accepts adult men; Reform also accepts adult
   women), one can count the Torah as part of the Minyan. One can also
   count a minor holding a chumash, as long as the group looks like it
   could be 10 until you bother counting them. This is based on Tractate
   Berachos 47b. The source is that Abraham first begged G-d to save
   Sodom, Gemorra and 3 smaller towns if they had 50 people. He then fell
   back to 45. Apparantly, therefore, if you can't get 10 per city, you
   can rely on 9. But this is only if you can not possibly scrape up 10.

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Subject: Question 9.13: What is the "Shema"?

                                  Answer:
   
   The "shema" is perhaps the "supreme" statement of Jewish belief.
   Traditional Jews recite it four times a day and was to be the last
   statement on a Jew's lips as they slip from life. The four times are:
     * During the morning service (shacharit)
     * During the afternoon service (mincha)
     * During the evening service (ma'ariv)
     * When sleeps come upon one
       
   Children are often taught it at bedtime. The last letter "dalet" is
   the numerical number "four"; in Kabbalah (Jewish Mysticism), this is a
   daily reference to the divine in the mystical "four corners of the
   earth", similar to the tzitzit on the four corners of the garment.
   Reform Jews have refered to it as the "affirmation of Jewish faith."
   
   The main part of the Shema reminds us to hear and remember that G-d is
   one. It commands us to write the shema on the doors of our house and
   on our gates (mezuzah), to speak the shema when we get up and when we
   go to bed. It commands us to wear garments that remind us of G-d with
   fringes.
   
   Note the differences between the first and second paragraphs of Shema.
   The first paragraph of Shema is written to the individual, and
   therefore is in the singular. There is little guarantee in this world
   that the righteous would prosper or the wicked fail. Therefore, the
   first paragraph enjoins us to "love Hashem your G-d with ... all that
   you have". Be it more, or be it less. The second paragraph is written
   in the plural because it addresses the nation as a group. The fate of
   the Jewish people does depend on whether or not we are found
   deserving. Although this only holds in a group sense -- the group
   suffers, not necessarily the least worthy of the nation. When the
   nation is undeserving, there would be a famine in Israel. Eventually,
   we deserved exile altogether. Therefore, when speaking to the nation
   as a unit, the contingent basis of our posessions is noted.

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Subject: Question 9.14: Where can I learn about the prayers before eating?

                                  Answer:
   
   Artscroll's siddur (see the [5]reading list) is a good place to start,
   as is the Metzudah (linear) siddur. There are also a number of English
   books on prayer by traditional sources. Again, the reading list is a
   good place to start.
   
   Another good resource is NCSY's guide to blessings, which is just a
   list of blessings made before or after around a thousand different
   foods, along with a small guide to the laws of blessings. It's a tiny
   booklet, staple-bound like a bencher. It is available at
   [6]www.ou.org.

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Subject: Question 9.15: What is the structure of the morning service?

                                  Answer:
   
   Morning services are composed of 7 parts:
    1. The morning blessings. In this part we thank G-d for another day.
       Originally each blessing was said as you did that particular thing
       for the first time that day--gird your belt, tie your shoes, learn
       Torah, etc.. However today they are folded onto the begining of
       services.
    2. The order of sacrifices. The prophets tell us that someone who
       sincerely studies the laws of sacrifices gets as close as possible
       to offering one. So, we read the Mishnayos about the various
       offerings in order to gain some measure of atonement.
    3. Pesukei diZimrah (lit: verses of songs of praise). Some chapters
       of Psalms, bracketed by an opening and closing blessing. The main
       point of this part is to be a "warm-up", to get into the proper
       frame of mind, before the next three parts. If you get to services
       too late to say Pesukei diZimrah and still say the main prayers
       with the congregation, you should skip them. Or perhaps skip all
       but "Ashrei"--depending upon the time available. Most decisors
       opine that you should still say the ones you skipped some time
       during the day. The Vilna Gaon ruled that you should not. The
       debate is whether the section exists only as warm-up, or primarily
       as warm-up but also serves other purposes. As to whether someone
       who has a short attention span is best served using up all of
       one's attention on Pesukei diZimrah so that the later prayers
       become mindless is a question for that person's Rabbi. It's
       probably also related to where you stand on that debate.
       Those of us of the Sesame Street sound-bite generation should be
       working toward slowly building up that preparation time. Still,
       there are days where such a person should just say the opening
       blessing, Ashrei, the closing blessing, and then study Torah at
       their seat while waiting for the congregation to get up to Shema.
       The next three parts are three actual and distinct mitzvos.
    4. The Shema, with two blessings before and two after.
    5. The Amidah, the actual formal prayer.
    6. Tachanun, a framework in which one is supposed to insert informal
       prayers. In other words, the Amidah serves to remind man what he
       ought to consider important, and therefore what his relationship
       with G-d ought to look like. Tachanun has some of that, but it's
       more actually relating to G-d, turning to your Parent with what's
       on your mind. [Not that the masses actually remember that this is
       what Tachanun is for. In practice, it is far too often yet another
       formalized text with nothing personal interjected.]
    7. The closing. Most famously, this includes Aleinu.
       
   The afternoon service, coming in the middle of the workday, has only
   Ashrei as an intro, leading to the Amidah, Tachanun and Aleinu. People
   simply don't have the time for a longer service.
   
   The evening service is obligatory only because universal customs ought
   not be broken. It's not an obligation of the same magnitude of the
   other two, and therefore they started it with the Shema, with no
   warm-up.

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Subject: Question 9.16: When should morning services start?

                                  Answer:
   
   The night ends at "Alot haShachar", the "rising of the morning". It
   has two halachic definitions: Most rule it is 72 minutes before dawn,
   some use the solar equivalent--16.1o (degrees) below the horizon. The
   latter would come dawn+72 min if the sun were up for exactly 12 hours
   that day. In the summer it would be longer, in the winter, later.
   Others use 90 solar minutes.
   
   The earliest you can say the morning blessings is Alot. The earliest
   one can wear tzitzit is at "Misheyaqir", when "one can recognize"
   which of the tzitzit strings are uncolored, and which are blue. (When
   the proper blue dye used for tzitzit was / will be available.)
   Misheyaqir also has two definitions: 11 degrees below the horizon or
   50 standard minutes. The first is the norm.
   
   Since you are supposed to wear tzitzit and tefillin for Shema, Shema
   must be said after Misheyaqir as well. The Amidah must be said at or
   after Haneitz haChamah, the sparkling of the sun, i.e., sunrise. This
   is when the leading edge of the sun is at the horizon.
   
   If you're checking your newspaper, you should find out if they're
   publishing the time the leading edge of the center of the sun crosses
   the horizon. If you say Shema well before Haneitz, you will have to
   say it again as a lead-in to the Amidah. However, this may mean that
   you can say it with tallit and tefillin at Haneitz, and then say it
   again with the Amidah without equipment.
   
   There are a number of packages out there that show you these times for
   various locales. At the Aishdash site
   ([5]http://www.aishdas.org/kaluach), there is a front end to Kaluach's
   JavaScript sunrise calculator. It's kind of unweildy, but it is
   accurate within a couple of minutes for locations well below the
   arctic circle.

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Subject: Question 9.17: Why do people put their tallit over their heads when
         they pray?

                                  Answer:
   
   Normally, they don't cover their heads for the entire service.
   Typically, it is done just from Borechu through Shema, the Amidah, and
   the Chazan's repetition of the Amidah. These are the times at which
   talking is to be minimized. Even answering "amen" depends on where
   you're up to, and what blessing or Kaddish one is answering. Covering
   your head is a straightforward way to minimize distraction.
   
   There is a second reason. The talmudic discussion of covering one's
   head when praying is a little vague. Some take it to mean that this is
   in /addition/ to the yarmulka. So, for many this is another reason to
   cover one's head during the most critical parts of prayer.

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Subject: Question 9.18: What is the importance of collective worship in
         Judaism?

                                  Answer:
   
   Collective worship is critical in Judaism. There are actually two
   notions behind gathering to pray:
    1. One is praying as an individual, where the others provide an
       environment more condusive to that prayer. This factor was even
       more critical before the printing press, when many people also
       relied on the cantor to provide the words.
    2. The second is praying as a community. Not merely as a group of
       individuals within a community, but the community's prayer to God.
       After all, the covenant at Sinai (or, for non-Jews, the covenant
       God made with Noah as he left the ark) was with the community as a
       collective unit. There is a sanctity to the community that exceeds
       the sum of its parts.
       
   In both issues, the communal prayer is superlative over praying alone.
   Of course, other factors come into play. Someone broken-heartedly
   praying outside their child's hospital room, speaking to God from the
   core of their being is still the superior prayer over one who might
   feel confined from fully expressing themselves in public.

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Subject: Question 9.19: What is the difference between Conservative Prayer
         and Orthodox Prayer?

                                  Answer:
   
   The following are some of the changes made by Conservative Judaism in
   regular prayers:
     * Birkhot HaShakhar - Morning Blessings
       Three of the early morning berakhot were modified to praise God
       for having created each individual in God's image, a free person
       and a Jew, rather than the conventional version which express
       gratitude for not having been created a woman, a slave or a
       non-Jew. Details on this modification can be found in "Siddur Sim
       Shalom - A Halakhic Analysis", Conservative Judaism, Vol.41(1),
       Fall 1988.
       Conventionally Birkhot HaShakhar contains a number of passages
       describing sacrifices and offerings in ancient times which can
       only be recalled, not carried out. Most of these passages are
       deleted from the Silverman Siddur, and even more from Siddur Sim
       Shalom. The sacrificial ritual in ancient times was construed as
       means by which a Jew gained atonement for sin. After the
       destruction of the Temple and the consequential end of sacrifices
       there, the Jewish people were deprived of this means. To replace
       the readings on sacrifices, modern Conservative prayerbooks cite
       the talmudic teaching that deeds of loving-kindness now atone for
       sin; they draw upon rabbinic tradition to emphasize teachings
       about atonement and necessary behavior.
       Texts that have been added to this part of the service include
       Leviticus 19:2, 14-18, Avot de Rabbi Nathan, 11a and Tractate
       Sukkah 49b.
     * Al HaNissim and the State of Israel
       An innovation in Conservative prayer books is a liturgical
       response to the creation of the modern State of Israel. It was
       felt that this should be made in a manner that is integral to the
       fabric of the service; Such a liturgical model already existed: Al
       HaNissim, which is added to the service on Purim on Chanukah. Thus
       a new, third Al HaNissim was composed, adapting the language and
       style of the standard Hebrew text to produce a text that is used
       on Yom Ha'Atzmaut, Israel's Independence Day. A Torah and Haftarah
       reading for this day is also indicated. In the Al Hanissim
       prayers, Siddur Sim Shalom follows the text of Rav Amram Gaon,
       emending the text which expressed gratitude for miracles "in other
       times, at this season" to now read "in other times, and in our
       day". This adds a basic theological dimension that miracles are
       not confined to a remote and unavailable past.
     * Sacrifices in the Amidah
       "Siddur Sim Shalom" presents multiple alternatives for the Shabbat
       Musaf, but the Orthodox version that explicitly prays for the
       resumption of animal sacrifice in a rebuilt Temple is not one of
       them. Instead, Siddur Sim Shalom adopts an innovation from "The
       Shabbat and Festival Prayerbook" in the Musaf Amidah; it changes
       the phrase na'ase ve'nakriv (we will present and sacrifice) to asu
       ve'hikrivu (they presented and sacrificed). The petition to accept
       the "fire offerings of Israel" is removed from the Amidah.
       There are similar modifications in the Rosh Hodesh Amidah. "Siddur
       Sim Shalom for Shabbat and Festivals" does not present multiple
       services; it presents one musaf for Shabbat, for festivals, and
       for Rosh Hodesh. Within each service, the reader is offered a
       traditional text, as well as an alternative text which eliminates
       mention of sacrifices. The traditional Y'hi Ratzon meditation
       ("May it be your will, Adonai our God, and God of our Ancestors,
       that the Temple be restored in our day...") following the Musaf
       Amidah is restored. This is also restored in Va'Ani Tefilati.
     * Other changes in Musaf
       Following a modification found in the siddur of Rav Saadiah Gaon,
       the Hebrew word ba-olam (in the world) is added to the daily
       prayer for peace at the end of the Amidah, making explicit the
       traditional Jewish concern for universal peace. A prayer for the
       welfare of the community, recited following the Torah service on
       Shabbat, was modified to include a phrase commending those who are
       devoted to helping rebuild the Land of Israel.
     * Tahanun - supplications following the weekday morning Amidah
       The earliest sources about saying Tahanun is from the Tosefta in
       Berakhot; The Geonim viewed this section as optional, the contents
       were flexible as well. In his Siddur Maimonides also makes it
       clear that there are various customs and he is merely citing his
       own custom. Originally this point in the service was considered
       appropriate for the personal supplications of each individual, and
       it still is. Over the years, however, certain stylized passages
       were printed as the fixed text; these contain references to the
       physical desolation of Jerusalem and statements of extreme
       self-abasement. To reflect present reality, such statements have
       been deleted, other passages have adapted or abridged, and brief
       portions of supplications by Rav Amram and Rav Saadiah Gaon have
       been added. These are closer to us in spirit than many passages of
       later origin which were canonized by the printing press. One's own
       prayers are appropriate, and traditional.
     * Egalitarian Hebrew formulations
       The language of liturgical formulas in Siddur Sim Shalom reflects
       the reality that in many congregations both men and women
       participate in the service. Some prayers include references to
       both the patriarchs and the matriarchs. Passages designed for use
       on Simchat Torah include texts appropriate for formally
       designating women as well as men as honorees on that occasion. The
       prayer on behalf of the congregation (recited after the Torah
       reading on Shabbat) has been emended to reflect the fact that
       women as well as men are members of the congregation. The Mi
       Sheberakh prayers contain forms for both male and female readers.
       The meditations prior to putting on the tallit and tefillin
       provide masculine and feminine forms.
     * Nahum, on Tisha B'Av
       Tisha B'Av commemorates the days on which both the First and
       Second Temples were destroyed. The conventional text (Nahum)
       speaks of Jerusalem as "a desolate and vacant city", laid waste
       and deserted. These lines no longer bear any relation to reality.
       As such the new text recalls the tragedy of ancient times, over
       which we mourn, and recalls the desolation of Jerusalem in the
       past. It also speaks of a "Jerusalem rebuilt from destruction and
       restored from desolation". It asks that all who mourn Jerusalem of
       old rejoice with her now, and it prays for the peace of that city.
     * Shoah (Holocaust) Remembrance
       "Siddur Sim Shalom" (original version) adds many passages for Yom
       HaShoah that can be added to any weekday service, as well as a
       formal reading. Several pages of readings are included in the
       supplementary section for addition to any of the services held on
       that day, and are followed by a formal reading arranged for
       responsive use. The section concludes with a Mourner's Kaddish
       similar in structure to the one on Yom Kipur.
     * Mysticism and Hasidism
       A surprising mystical and Hasidic influence appears in Siddur Sim
       Shalom, as is illustrated by the numerous additions to the prayer
       book which originated in these movements. The blessing for the new
       moon (kiddush levanah) appears at the end of the Sabbath liturgy.
       Another mystical element is the Raza DeShabbat, the "Vision of
       Shabbat", which precedes the Sabbath evening service. Taken from
       the Zohar, this passage depicts the enthronement of the Shekhinah.
       Several of the alternative meditations which follow the amidot
       stress joy, and request freedom from atzvit (sorrow) in classic
       Hasidic fashion. In fact, a number of these passages are based on
       the teachings of Rabbi Nachman of Bratslav. Some benedictions for
       mitzvot are preceded by kavanot (meditations) which were
       introduced into the liturgy by the Kabbalists.
     * Adding Matriarchs to the Amidah
       Two positions have been accepted by the Conservative movement on
       this issue. One position states that, for a variety of reasons, it
       is wrong to add the names of the Matriarchs to the Amidah. A
       second position advances a halakhic argument that shows that such
       changes are permissible. In all cases where the law committee has
       validated more than one possible position, a congregation must
       follow the ruling of its rabbi, who as mara d'atra [local halakhic
       authority] has the sole responsibility and authority in making
       such a p'sak [decision].
       Note: When presenting the Matriarchs in the opening passage of the
       Amidah, Conservative/Masorti siddurim do not add the word
       "Imoteynu" (our Matriarchs), as the word "Avoteynu" is held to be
       correctly understood as "our Ancestors", and not as "our
       Patriarchs".
       
   To better understand Conservative teshuvot and siddurim one should be
   familiar with the findings of modern liturgical scholarship; this has
   demonstrated not only the flexible nature of the liturgy in general,
   including the Amidah. Suggested references:
     * "Liturgy" entry in the "Encyclopaedia Judaica" Ismar Elbogen and
       Raymond P. Scheindlin.
     * "Jewish Liturgy: A Comprehensive History", JPS, 1993.

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